Loading...
Chapter 12 of 25
皇极经世
Confucius said: "When a good man governs a state for a hundred years, he can overcome cruelty and eliminate killing." How true these words are! From extreme chaos to extreme order, there must be three transformations. The Three Sovereigns had laws without killing; the Five Hegemons had laws without nurture. From the way of the hegemon, one transformation reaches the way of the king; from the way of the king, one transformation reaches the way of the emperor; from the way of the emperor, one transformation reaches the way of the sovereign. In terms of nurturing the people, how could this be achieved in less than a hundred years?
From this we know: The age of the Three Sovereigns is like spring, the age of the Five Emperors is like summer 🌱, the age of the Three Kings is like autumn, and the age of the Five Hegemons is like winter ❄️. Like spring, warm and gentle; like summer, hot and steaming; like autumn, bleak and desolate; like winter, piercing and austere.
Spring, summer, autumn, and winter are the seasonal operations of Heaven; the Yi, Shu, Shi, and Chunqiu are the classical statutes of the sages. When the seasons of Heaven do not deviate, the year's harvest is completed; when the classics of the sages are not betrayed, the ruler's virtue is accomplished.
Heaven has constant seasons; the sages have constant classics. Following them and walking the correct path is correctness; following them and walking the deviant path is deviance. Within deviance and correctness, there is a Way present: walking correctly is called the correct way, and walking deviantly is called the deviant way. Is deviance and correctness determined by humans, or is it determined by Heaven?
Heaven is born from the Way, Earth is completed by the Way, and the myriad things operate by the Way. Heaven, Earth, humans, and things, though each is different, are consistent in that they all follow the Way. What is called the Way is the Way itself. The Way has no physical form, but once practiced, it manifests in concrete affairs, just like a road—flat and broad, so that the thousands and billions of years of those who walk upon it may all know their destination.
Some say: When the way of the gentleman grows, the way of the petty person recedes; when the way of the gentleman recedes, the way of the petty person grows. The growing side is right, and the receding side is wrong—then if the receding side is right and the growing side is wrong, by what standard does one judge the correct way from the deviant way? Alas! This is a harmful doctrine. Why not put it this way: When the ruler performs the ruler's duties, the minister performs the minister's duties, the father performs the father's duties, the son performs the son's duties, the husband performs the husband's duties, the wife performs the wife's duties, the gentleman performs the gentleman's duties, the petty person performs the petty person's duties, the Central Kingdom performs the Central Kingdom's duties, and the usurper and rebel performs the usurper's and rebel's duties—this is called the correct way. Conversely, when the ruler performs the minister's duties, the minister performs the ruler's duties, the father performs the son's duties, the son performs the father's duties, the husband performs the wife's duties, the wife performs the husband's duties, the gentleman performs the petty person's duties, the petty person performs the gentleman's duties, the Central Kingdom performs the usurper's and rebel's duties, and the usurper and rebel performs the Central Kingdom's duties—this is called the deviant way.
Looking across the prosperous ages of the Three Dynasties, there was none that did not take the ordering of human relations as the correct way; in the chaotic ages of the Three Dynasties, there was none that did not take the disturbance of human relations as the deviant way. Later generations that admired the prosperous ages of the Three Dynasties invariably rectified human relations; later generations that repeated the chaotic ages of the Three Dynasties invariably disturbed human relations.
From the Three Dynasties downward, the Han and Tang dynasties were the most prosperous, yet neither escaped flourishing through order and perishing through chaos—let alone those dynasties that were not even as strong as Han and Tang! Their flourishing was invariably because the way of the ruler flourished, the way of the father flourished, the way of the husband flourished, the way of the gentleman flourished, and the way of the Central Kingdom flourished; their perishing was invariably because the way of the minister was excessive, the way of the son was excessive, the way of the wife was excessive, the way of the petty person was excessive, and the way of the barbarian was excessive.
Alas! The correct way and the deviant way stand in parallel opposition—why are there so few ages of order and so many ages of chaos? Why are there so few gentlemen and so many petty persons?
The answer: Do you not know the principle that yang is one and yin is two? Heaven and Earth are still born from this Way, let alone humans and the myriad things? Humans are the most spirited among the myriad things. The spirit of the myriad things is inferior to that of humans, yet they are still born from this Way—let alone humans, who are more spirited than the myriad things? From this we know that humans are also things, but because their spirit is the highest, they are specifically called humans.
This chapter aims to establish, from the perspective of the operation of the Heavenly Way, a complete philosophical system that connects natural rhythms, historical evolution, and human relational order. Shao Yong proposes:
The deeper meaning of "a hundred years": Shao Yong's "hundred years" is not a specific number, but rather refers to institutional and cultural change requiring generational accumulation. In modern society, the construction of rule of law, the popularization of education, and the reshaping of values equally require the sustained efforts of several generations. From the establishment of an institution to its internalization as social custom often takes more than one generation. "A good man governing a state for a hundred years" reveals the long-cycle nature of social transformation.
Contemporary transformation of role ethics: Shao Yong defines the correct way as "the ruler performs the ruler's duties, the minister performs the minister's duties, the father performs the father's duties, the son performs the son's duties"—the core is the alignment of role and responsibility. In modern society, managers should fulfill management responsibilities, employees should fulfill their post responsibilities, parents should fulfill nurturing responsibilities, and children should fulfill filial responsibilities—roles may change, but the principle of being in one's position and attending to its affairs remains valid. Disorder in an organization or society often begins with role displacement and dereliction of responsibility.
Real-world observation of yang as one and yin as two: Shao Yong uses "yang as one and yin as two" to explain why ages of order are few but ages of chaos are many. Its modern equivalent can be understood as: order (yang) is fragile and requires careful maintenance, while chaos (yin) is spontaneous and multi-pathwayed. This is consistent with the sociological observation that "order requires construction, while disorder arises naturally." Recognizing this helps us approach the continuity of institutional construction and maintenance with greater clarity.
The homology of the Heavenly Way and human affairs: Shao Yong places the seasons of Heaven (spring, summer, autumn, winter) alongside the classics of the sages (Yi, Shu, Shi, Chunqiu), advocating that "when the seasons of Heaven do not deviate, the year's harvest is completed; when the classics of the sages are not betrayed, the ruler's virtue is accomplished." The underlying logic is the homologous origin of natural laws and human norms. Modern social governance equally requires "following the Way"—respecting objective laws (economic laws, ecological laws, laws of social psychology) rather than subjective arbitrariness.
The answer to "whether deviance and correctness are determined by Heaven or by humans": Shao Yong unifies Heaven and humans through the "Way." The Way gives birth to Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things; the Way is formless but manifests in affairs. This means humans are both bearers of the Way and practitioners of the Way. Deviance and correctness are neither determined by Heaven nor purely arbitrary on the part of humans, but rather depend on whether humans act according to the Way. This position remains instructive today: value judgments cannot be fully relativized, but neither can they be divorced from human practice.
Role self-audit in organizational governance: Transform Shao Yong's role checklist of the "correct way" into a modern management tool—periodically examine whether role displacement exists within the organization. For example: do managers bypass levels to intervene in execution details (the ruler performing the minister's duties)? Do subordinates make decisions beyond their authority (the minister performing the ruler's duties)? Role clarity is the foundation of organizational health.
Patience and pacing in social transformation: Shao Yong's "threefold transformation" theory reminds us that any deep-level social change requires phased advancement. From institutional construction to cultural internalization, from compulsory norms to conscious compliance, each step has its necessary time cost. Impatience and haste often produce the opposite of the intended effect.
Preventive awareness in maintaining order: Since "yang is one and yin is two"—order is fragile and chaos is frequent—more resources should be invested in preventive maintenance rather than post-hoc repair. Whether in maintaining personal habits, managing family relationships, or sustaining public institutions, continuous and proactive investment is required.
The practical principle of prioritizing human relations: In family, education, and workplace settings, priority should be given to the health of basic human relationships. The harmony of husband-wife, parent-child, and colleague relationships is the microfoundation of all social order. Role displacement within the family (such as father not being father, son not being son) is often the source of social problems.
The "formlessness" of the Way and its "manifestation in affairs": Shao Yong says, "The Way has no form, but once practiced, it manifests in affairs, like the way of a road." This proposition touches the core of the substance-function relationship in Chinese philosophy. The Way is not an abstract principle suspended in mid-air, but rather a truth of existence that must manifest in practice. This resonates with Heidegger's notion that "Being reveals itself in beings"—the Way is not elsewhere; it lies in the correctness of daily conduct.
The inevitability of historical cycles and human responsibility: Shao Yong's view of history carries cyclical overtones, but he does not thereby fall into fatalism. On the contrary, he repeatedly emphasizes "walking correctly is correctness, walking deviantly is deviance," returning the course of history to humans' own choice. Cycles are the grand framework of the Heavenly Way, but within the cycles, how each generation acts determines its own phase and quality.
Yang as one, yin as two: ontological asymmetry: This proposition is more profound than it appears on the surface. It means good and evil, order and chaos are ontologically asymmetric—good is pure and unitary, evil is mixed and diverse; order has a single direction, chaos has multiple directions. This provides a metaphysical explanation for "why doing good is hard and doing evil is easy": it is not a failure of moral effort, but rather that the structure of existence itself tends toward dissipation; maintaining order requires a continuous input of energy.
The distinction of spirit in "humans are also things": On the one hand, Shao Yong says "humans are also things," incorporating humans into the myriad things and dissolving any absolute gulf between humans and things; on the other hand, he points out that humans are specifically called "humans" because of their "supreme spirit." This perspective of simultaneous continuity and difference remains valuable in contemporary discussions of ecological philosophy and artificial intelligence ethics. The basis of being human lies not in escaping nature, but in the capacity for moral responsibility endowed by spirit.
The Three Sovereigns, Five Emperors, Three Kings, and Five Hegemons: The core sequence of periodization in ancient Chinese history. The Three Sovereigns (variously listed as Fu Xi, Shennong, the Yellow Emperor, etc.) represent the idealized archaic age of governance; the Five Emperors (Shaohao, Zhuanxu, Diku, Yao, Shun) represent the age of abdication; the Three Kings (Yu of Xia, Tang of Shang, Wen and Wu of Zhou) mark the beginning of hereditary kingship; the Five Hegemons (Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, etc.) were the Spring and Autumn period's hegemons who used force in the name of benevolence. Shao Yong's correlation with the four seasons embodies his methodology of "observing history through the Yijing."
Sovereign, Emperor, King, Hegemon: Core concepts in Shao Yong's Guanwu Neipian, representing four levels of governance. The sovereign transforms the people through the Way, the emperor teaches the people through virtue, the king motivates the people through merit, and the hegemon leads the people through force. The assessment in this chapter that "from the hegemon one transformation reaches the king, from the king one transformation reaches the emperor, and from the emperor one transformation reaches the sovereign" is the reverse ascent through these four levels.
Yang as one, yin as two: A numerical principle in Yijing studies. Yang is the beginning of odd numbers (one), yin is the beginning of even numbers (two). Yang governs unity and purity; yin governs dispersion and multiplicity. This principle holds foundational status in Shao Yong's cosmology, used to explain numerous asymmetries from the generation of Heaven and Earth to phenomena in human affairs.
Human relations: The five relations—ruler-minister, father-son, husband-wife, elder-younger brother, friend-friend. Mencius first advocated "affection between father and son, righteousness between ruler and minister, distinction between husband and wife, order between elder and younger, trust between friends." Shao Yong's use of human relational correctness as the fundamental criterion of order and chaos is an Yijing-informed expression of Confucian ethical philosophy.
Haotian: That is, "High Heaven," an honorific for Heaven in antiquity. The Shangshu·Yaodian has the phrase "reverently conform to Haotian." In Shao Yong's system, "the seasons of Haotian" refers to the operation of the four seasons of spring, summer, autumn, and winter—the unfolding of the Heavenly Way in time.
The Yi, Shu, Shi, and Chunqiu: Core Confucian classics that Shao Yong calls "the classics of the sages," corresponding to the four seasons of Heaven. This correspondence embodies his "statecraft" thought: the classics are not texts on a bookshelf but governance principles homologous with the operation of the Heavenly Way.
《皇极经世·观物内篇》: The companion chapter to this one. It systematically discusses the four levels of sovereign, emperor, king, and hegemon governance, along with the epistemological method of "observing things through things." Read together with this chapter, it provides a complete grasp of Shao Yong's statecraft philosophy.
《皇极经世·观物外篇》: Compiled by Shao Yong's son Shao Bowen, containing extensive deductions on Yijing numerology, calendrical systems, and historical periodization. It is of significant assistance for understanding the numerological foundations of "yang as one, yin as two."
《周易·系辞传》: Propositions such as "one yin and one yang constitute the Way" and "Heaven is exalted, Earth is lowly—qian and kun are thereby fixed" provide the classical foundation for Shao Yong's theory of human relational correctness. In particular, the ideas of "the Way of qian becomes male, the Way of kun becomes female" and "each rectifying its nature and destiny" directly continue the thought of "each occupying its proper position" in this chapter.
《孟子·滕文公上》: The classic source of the five teachings on human relations. "Affection between father and son, righteousness between ruler and minister, distinction between husband and wife, order between elder and younger, trust between friends"—this may serve as supplementary textual reference for the human relational criteria of this chapter.
The Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals: In particular, the discussion in the Gongyang and Guliang Commentaries of "treating one's own state as central and the various Xia as peripheral, treating the various Xia as central and the barbarians as peripheral" shares intellectual affinity with Shao Yong's judgment that "the Central Kingdom performs the Central Kingdom's duties, and when the way of the barbarian flourishes, [the state] perishes."
Feng Youlan's History of Chinese Philosophy: Classifies Shao Yong under the "system of image-number learning," providing systematic analysis of his "one divides into two" cosmological generation. Feng points out that Shao Yong's philosophy of history has tendencies toward "cyclical theory" and "determinism," while also acknowledging its deepening of Confucian ethics.
Mou Zongsan's Mind-Substance and Nature-Substance: Although centered on the Neo-Confucian theory of mind and nature, it offers unique analysis of the philosophical implications of Shao Yong's "observing things" thought. Mou holds that Shao Yong's "observing things through things" is not purely objectivist but contains a dimension of self-cultivation practice.
Chen Lai's Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism: Treats Shao Yong as one of the "Five Masters of the Northern Song," discussing his "yuan-hui-yun-shi" (cycle of cosmic epochs) theory of history and his political philosophy of "sovereign-king-emperor-hegemon," noting Shao Yong's unique approach of seeking to encompass nature and history through a numerological system.
Yu Dunkang's The Past and Present of Yijing Studies: Examines Shao Yong's "a priori learning" from the perspective of Yijing study history, pointing out the significance and limitations of elevating the divination tradition of the Zhou Yi into a cosmological-historical philosophical system. Yu believes Shao Yong's system is methodologically groundbreaking, but his historical determinism requires critical examination.
Benjamin A. Elman's Classicism, Politics, and Kinship: Although focused on Qing dynasty classical learning, it touches on the Song dynasty Neo-Confucian reinforcement of the "human relations" order and its sociopolitical functions. This aids in understanding the institutional influence of Shao Yong's human relational thought in late imperial China.
Contemporary "Order Theory" Research: Shao Yong's discussion of "yang as one, yin as two" regarding the fragility of order is comparable to the concept of "entropy increase" in contemporary complexity science and the theory in sociology that "social order requires continuous maintenance." It can serve as a classical resource for interdisciplinary dialogue.